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arithmetic base point

  • 1 запятая в позиционном представлении числа

    1) Engineering: arithmetic point
    2) Information technology: base point, radix point

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > запятая в позиционном представлении числа

  • 2 aritmetička tačka

    • base point
    • arithmetic point

    Српски-Енглески Технички речник > aritmetička tačka

  • 3 aritmetički zarez

    • arithmetic point
    • base point

    Српски-Енглески Технички речник > aritmetički zarez

  • 4 decimalni zarez

    • base point
    • arithmetic point

    Српски-Енглески Технички речник > decimalni zarez

  • 5 aritmetička tačka

    • arithmetic point; base point

    Serbian-English dictionary > aritmetička tačka

  • 6 aritmetički zarez

    • arithmetic point; base point

    Serbian-English dictionary > aritmetički zarez

  • 7 decimalni zarez (tačka)

    • arithmetic point; base point

    Serbian-English dictionary > decimalni zarez (tačka)

  • 8 operación1

    1 = operation, transaction, venture, operation.
    Ex. With the advent of micro-computers even much smaller cataloguing operations can effectively be computerised.
    Ex. Access to individual transaction is made via a menu.
    Ex. However rudimentary or advanced the system, and no matter what the age of the children involved, certain matters should be considered before setting out on the venture.
    Ex. The third assistant, Alfred MacIntosh, was recovering from a hernia operation and would not be back for two weeks = El tercer ayudante, Alfred MacIntosh, estaba recuperándose de una operación de hernia y estaría ausente durante dos semanas.
    ----
    * base de operaciones = home base.
    * director de operaciones = chief operating officer (COO), director for operations.
    * en mitad de la operación = in mid-operation.
    * escenario de operaciones = scene of operations, theatre of operations.
    * gestión de operaciones = operations management.
    * manual de operaciones = operations manual.
    * operación aritmética = arithmetic operation.
    * operación bancaria = bank transaction.
    * operación combinada = combined operation.
    * operación combinatoria = combination operation.
    * operación comercial = business transaction.
    * operación conjunta = joint operation, combined operation.
    * operación de búsqueda y rescate = search and rescue operation, search and rescue mission.
    * operación de conexión = logging transaction.
    * operación de poca monta = one-room, one-person operation.
    * operación de rescate = salvage operation, salvaging operation, rescue operation.
    * operación de salvamento = salvage operation, search and rescue operation, search and rescue mission, salvaging operation.
    * operaciones aritméticas decimales = floating point mathematics.
    * operaciones comerciales = business practices.
    * operaciones de información = information operations.
    * operaciones de rescate = rescue work.
    * operaciones informáticas = computer operations.
    * operación mental = mental operation.
    * operación militar = military operation.
    * operación policial = sting operation.
    * operación por defecto = default.
    * operación sobre datos = data manipulation.
    * racionalizar las operaciones = streamline + operations.
    * realizar las operaciones bancarias = bank.
    * realizar una operación = conduct + operation, carry out + transaction.
    * reanudar las operaciones = be back in business.
    * registro de operaciones realizadas = transaction log, transaction logging.
    * rentabilizar las operaciones = streamline + operations.
    * tarifa por el número de operaciones = volume-based tariff.
    * teatro de operaciones = theatre of operations.
    * unidad de operaciones = operational unit.

    Spanish-English dictionary > operación1

  • 9 operación

    f.
    1 operation.
    2 surgery, operation, surgical operation.
    3 functioning, operation.
    4 operation, driving.
    * * *
    1 (gen) operation
    2 FINANZAS transaction, deal
    \
    * * *
    noun f.
    * * *
    SF
    1) (=acción) operation

    operaciones de rescate, operaciones de salvamento — rescue operations

    operación retorno — Esp effort to control traffic returning to a big city after a major holiday

    2) (Med) operation

    una operación de estómago — a stomach operation, an operation on the stomach

    operación cesárea — Caesarean, Caesarean operation

    3) (Mil) operation

    operación de limpia, operación de limpieza — mopping up operation

    4) (Com) transaction, deal

    operaciones bursátiles, operaciones de bolsa — stock-exchange transactions

    operación "llave en mano" — turnkey operation

    5) (Mat) operation
    6) LAm (Min) operation, working, exploitation; (Com) management
    7)

    operaciones accesorias — (Inform) housekeeping sing

    * * *
    1)
    a) (Mat) operation
    b) (Med) operation
    2) (Fin) transaction
    3) ( misión) operation

    operación policial/de rescate — police/rescue operation

    •
    * * *
    1)
    a) (Mat) operation
    b) (Med) operation
    2) (Fin) transaction
    3) ( misión) operation

    operación policial/de rescate — police/rescue operation

    •
    * * *
    operación1
    1 = operation, transaction, venture, operation.

    Ex: With the advent of micro-computers even much smaller cataloguing operations can effectively be computerised.

    Ex: Access to individual transaction is made via a menu.
    Ex: However rudimentary or advanced the system, and no matter what the age of the children involved, certain matters should be considered before setting out on the venture.
    Ex: The third assistant, Alfred MacIntosh, was recovering from a hernia operation and would not be back for two weeks = El tercer ayudante, Alfred MacIntosh, estaba recuperándose de una operación de hernia y estaría ausente durante dos semanas.
    * base de operaciones = home base.
    * director de operaciones = chief operating officer (COO), director for operations.
    * en mitad de la operación = in mid-operation.
    * escenario de operaciones = scene of operations, theatre of operations.
    * gestión de operaciones = operations management.
    * manual de operaciones = operations manual.
    * operación aritmética = arithmetic operation.
    * operación bancaria = bank transaction.
    * operación combinada = combined operation.
    * operación combinatoria = combination operation.
    * operación comercial = business transaction.
    * operación conjunta = joint operation, combined operation.
    * operación de búsqueda y rescate = search and rescue operation, search and rescue mission.
    * operación de conexión = logging transaction.
    * operación de poca monta = one-room, one-person operation.
    * operación de rescate = salvage operation, salvaging operation, rescue operation.
    * operación de salvamento = salvage operation, search and rescue operation, search and rescue mission, salvaging operation.
    * operaciones aritméticas decimales = floating point mathematics.
    * operaciones comerciales = business practices.
    * operaciones de información = information operations.
    * operaciones de rescate = rescue work.
    * operaciones informáticas = computer operations.
    * operación mental = mental operation.
    * operación militar = military operation.
    * operación policial = sting operation.
    * operación por defecto = default.
    * operación sobre datos = data manipulation.
    * racionalizar las operaciones = streamline + operations.
    * realizar las operaciones bancarias = bank.
    * realizar una operación = conduct + operation, carry out + transaction.
    * reanudar las operaciones = be back in business.
    * registro de operaciones realizadas = transaction log, transaction logging.
    * rentabilizar las operaciones = streamline + operations.
    * tarifa por el número de operaciones = volume-based tariff.
    * teatro de operaciones = theatre of operations.
    * unidad de operaciones = operational unit.

    operación2
    2 = surgery.

    Ex: After attending weekly teaching rounds in surgery, pediatrics and obstetrics and noting the questions asked during discussion of the cases, librarians send out photocopies of relevant articles to interested individuals and interested individuals.

    * en la mesa de operaciones = under the knife.
    * operación de bypass = bypass operation.
    * operación de cambio de sexo = sex-change surgery, sex-change operation.
    * operación de corazón = heart operation.
    * operación de pecho = breast surgery.
    * operación quirúrgica = surgical procedure.
    * sala de operaciones = operating room.

    * * *
    A ( Mat) operation
    B ( Med) operation
    una operación del estómago a stomach operation
    se sometió a una operación a corazón abierto he underwent open-heart surgery
    una operación a vida o muerte a life-or-death operation
    C ( Fin) (transacción) transaction
    una operación bursátil/financiera a stock market/financial transaction o deal
    D (tarea) operation
    operación policial police operation
    la operación de rescate the rescue operation
    Compuestos:
    clean up operation, clean up
    toca operación limpieza ( hum); it's time to clean the house o ( colloq) for a blitz on the house
    search operation
    1 (en Esp) (the mass return by road to the cities from the seaside resorts after public holidays)
    2 (en AmL) (the return of refugees or political exiles at the end of a period of repression)
    ( Col) go-slow
    * * *

     

    operación sustantivo femenino
    a) (Mat) operation

    b) (Med) operation;


    c) (Fin) transaction



    operación sustantivo femenino
    1 Med operation
    una operación de riñón, a kidney operation
    2 Fin transaction, deal
    3 Mat operation
    4 (actuación, realización) operation
    ' operación' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    anestesia
    - cálculo
    - debilitar
    - practicar
    - salir
    - salazón
    - señal
    - sufrir
    - cerebro
    - comercial
    - comprobar
    - cuenta
    - devolver
    - intervenir
    - mercantil
    - someter
    English:
    blitz
    - Caesarean
    - elaborately
    - exercise
    - forceps
    - groggy
    - herself
    - implant
    - major
    - management
    - minor
    - operation
    - optimal
    - over
    - surgery
    - transaction
    - undergo
    - venture
    - money
    - since
    * * *
    1. [acción organizada] operation
    operación policial police operation;
    operación de rescate rescue operation;
    operación retorno = police operation to assist traffic at the end of popular holiday periods;
    operación salida = police operation to assist traffic at the beginning of popular holiday periods;
    operación de salvamento rescue operation
    2. [quirúrgica] operation;
    operación (quirúrgica) (surgical) operation;
    una operación de corazón a heart operation;
    una operación a vida o muerte a life-or-death operation;
    el paciente debe someterse a una operación the patient needs to have an operation;
    le realizaron una operación de estómago he had a stomach operation;
    tuvo que ser sometido a una operación de urgencia he had to undergo an emergency operation
    3. [matemática] operation
    4. [militar] operation;
    operaciones conjuntas joint operations
    operación de limpia o de limpieza a mopping-up operation
    5. Com, Fin transaction;
    una operación bursátil a stock-market transaction;
    una operación mercantil a commercial transaction;
    una operación comercial a commercial transaction;
    * * *
    f operation
    * * *
    operación nf, pl - ciones
    1) : operation
    2) : transaction, deal
    * * *
    operación n operation

    Spanish-English dictionary > operación

  • 10 число

    count, figure, number, numeral
    * * *
    число́ с.
    1. (совокупность предметов и т. п.) count, number
    вводи́ть число́ (в счё́тную маши́ну) — key [enter] a number into (a calculator)
    изобража́ть число́ — represent a number
    обознача́ть число́ — express a number
    число́ о́бщее — total of …
    округли́ть число́ — round off a number
    представля́ть число́ в дополни́тельном ко́де вчт. — cast a number in true complement form
    представля́ть число́ в обра́тном ко́де вчт. — cast a number in base [radix] minus ones complement form
    представля́ть число́ в прямо́м ко́де вчт. — cast a number in sign-and-magnitude [in sign-and-absolute value] form
    представля́ть двои́чное число́ в дополни́тельном ко́де вчт. — cast a binary number in 2's complement form
    представля́ть двои́чное число́ в обра́тном ко́де вчт. — cast a binary number in 1's complement form
    представля́ть десяти́чное число́ в дополни́тельном ко́де вчт. — cast a decimal number in 10's complement form
    представля́ть десяти́чное число́ в обра́тном ко́де вчт. — cast a decimal number in 9's complement form
    сбра́сывать чи́сла (на счё́тной маши́не) — clear the calculator
    составля́ть ( такое-то) [m2]число́ — be in (such and such number)
    число́ кана́лов (составля́ет) четы́ре — the channels are four in number
    усека́ть число́ — truncate a number
    3. ( в таблицах) ( не путать c №№ n/n) No. of …
    4. ( количество) quantity
    проверя́ть число́, напр. болто́в — check, e. g., the bolts for correct count
    число́ А́ббе — Abbe number
    число́ Авога́дро — Avogadro number
    арифмети́ческое число́ — arithmetic number, absolute number
    а́томное число́ — atomic number
    ацето́новое число́ — acetone number
    число́ без зна́ка вчт. — unsigned number
    безразме́рное число́ — dimensionless [nondimensional, pure] number
    число́ Берну́лли — Bernoulli number
    число́ Ве́бера — Weber number
    веще́ственное число́ — real number
    взаи́мно-просты́е чи́сла — coprime numbers, relatively prime numbers
    водоро́дное число́ — hydrogen number
    водяно́е число́ ( калориметра) — water equivalent
    волново́е число́ — wave number
    гидрокси́льное число́ — hydroxyl number
    число́ Грасго́фа — Grashoff number
    число́ Гре́ца — Graetz number
    двои́чно-десяти́чное число́ — binary coded decimal [BCD] number
    двои́чное число́ — binary number
    двои́чно-пятери́чное число́ — biquinary number
    число́ двойны́х ходо́в в мину́ту — strokes per minute, s.p.m.
    десяти́чное число́ — decimal (number)
    десяти́чное, двои́чно-коди́рованное число́ — binary coded decimal [BCD] number
    докрити́ческое число́ мех. — subcritical number
    дро́бное число́ — fraction, fractional [broken] number
    закрити́ческое число́ мех. — beyond-critical [supercritical] number

    n
    -зна́чное число́ — n -digit number
    золото́е число́ — the golden number
    изотопи́ческое число́ — isotopic number
    имено́ванное число́ — denominate(d) number
    иррациона́льное число́ — irrational (number), surd (number)
    ио́дное число́ — iodine number, iodine value
    число́ кавита́ции — cavitation number
    кардина́льное число́ — cardinality, cardinal number
    число́ Карма́на — Karman number
    ква́нтовое число́ — quantum number
    ква́нтовое, азимута́льное число́ — azimuthal quantum number
    ква́нтовое, вну́треннее число́ — inner quantum number
    ква́нтовое, гла́вное число́ — first [principal] quantum number
    ква́нтовое, магни́тное число́ — magnetic quantum number
    ква́нтовое, спи́новое число́ — spin quantum number
    кислоро́дное число́ — oxygen number
    кисло́тное число́ — acid number
    ко́мплексное число́ — complex number
    координацио́нное число́ — coordination number
    кра́тное число́ — multiple
    кру́глое число́ — round number
    число́ Ло́кка — Lock number
    число́ Лошми́дта — Loschmidt number
    число́ Лью́иса — Lewis number
    число́ М — Mach (number), M number
    с число́м М — triplesonic
    ма́ссовое число́ яд. физ. — mass [nucleon] number
    число́ Ма́ха — Mach (number), M number
    число́ Ма́ха, гиперзвуково́е — hypersonic M number
    число́ Ма́ха, дозвуково́е — subsonic M number
    число́ Ма́ха, околозвуково́е — transonic M number
    число́ Ма́ха, сверхзвуково́е — supersonic [over-one] M number
    число́ мест (в транспортном средстве, зрительном зале и т. п.) — seating capacity
    мни́мое число́ — imaginary (number)
    многозна́чное число́ — multidigit [multiplace] number
    натура́льное число́ — natural number
    число́ нейтрализа́ции — neutralization number
    число́ нейтро́нов ( в ядре) — neutron number
    ненормализо́ванное число́ — nonnormalized number
    неотрица́тельное число́ — nonnegative number
    нечё́тное число́ — odd number
    нормализо́ванное число́ — standard [normalized] number, a number in normal form
    число́ Ну́ссельта — Nusselt number
    число́ оборо́тов — rotational speed
    число́ оборо́тов в мину́ту — revolutions per minute, r.p.m.
    число́ оборо́тов дви́гателя — engine speed
    число́ оборо́тов дви́гателя на холосто́м ходу́ — idling speed
    число́ оборо́тов, уде́льное — specific speed
    число́ обраще́ний, допусти́мое ( в электростатических запоминающих трубках) — selection ratio
    число́ обраще́нии ме́жду регенера́циями ( в электростатическом запоминающем устройстве) — read-around number, read-around ratio
    число́ окисле́ния — oxidation number
    окта́новое число́ — octane number, octane value, octane rating
    число́ омыле́ния — saponification number, saponification value
    ордина́льное число́ — ordinal (number)
    отвлечё́нное число́ — dimensionless [nondimensional, pure] number
    относи́тельные чи́сла — directed [signed, algebraic] numbers
    отрица́тельное число́ — negative number
    число́ Пекле́ — Peclet number
    переводно́е число́ ( в физической химии) — transference number
    переда́точное число́
    1. мех. gear ratio
    переда́точное число́ ме́жду зубча́тыми колё́сами А и Б равно́ 60: [m2]1 — gears A and B are geared by 60 to 1
    переда́точное число́ от А к Б составля́ет 1:n ( в сервомеханизмах) — A is geared 1: n to B
    2. эл. gain
    переда́точное число́ два к одному́ — two-to-one ratio, two-to-one gear
    число́ переда́ч — number of gears
    пе́рекисное число́ — peroxide number
    число́ перено́са
    1. ( в физической химии) transport number
    2. мат. carry quantity
    пермангана́тное число́ ( целлюлозы) — permanganate number
    пифаго́ровы чи́сла — Pythagorean numbers, Pythagorean triples
    подкоренно́е число́ — radicand
    поря́дковое число́ — ordinal; ordinal [serial] number
    число́ Пра́ндтля — Prandtl number
    число́ проду́ба кож. — tanning number
    просто́е число́ — prime number
    равнооста́точные чи́сла — congruent numbers
    число́ разря́дов в реги́стре — register length
    рациона́льное число́ — rational (number)
    число́ Рейно́льдса — Reynolds number
    число́ Рейно́льдса, крити́ческое — transition Reynolds number
    число́ Ре́йхерта—Ме́йссля — Reichert-Meissl number
    рода́новое число́ — thiocyanogen number, thiocyanogen value
    случа́йные чи́сла — random numbers
    выраба́тывать случа́йные чи́сла вчт. — generate random numbers
    составно́е число́ — composite number
    спиртово́е число́ — alcohol number
    число́ с пла́вающей запято́й — floating-point number
    число́ Строуха́ла — Strouhal number
    число́ Стэ́нтона — Stanton number
    число́ с фикси́рованной запято́й — fixed-point number
    число́ твё́рдости — hardness number
    число́ твё́рдости по Брине́ллю — Brinell (hardness) number
    число́ твё́рдости по Ви́ккерсу — Vickers (hardness) number
    число́ твё́рдости по Моо́су — Moos (hardness) number
    число́ твё́рдости по Ро́квеллу — Rockwell (hardness) number
    число́ теорети́ческих таре́лок — theoretical plate number
    число́ Фараде́я — Faraday constant, faraday
    фигу́рные чи́сла — figurate numbers
    фле́гмовое число́ хим. — reflux ratio
    число́ Фру́да — Froude number
    це́лое число́ — integer, integral [whole] number
    це́лое, ко́мплексное число́ — complex [Gaussian] integer
    цета́новое число́ — cetane number
    чё́тное число́ — even number
    чи́сто мни́мое число́ — pure imaginary (number)
    число́ Ше́рвуда — Sherwood number
    число́ Шми́дта — Schmidt number
    число́ Э́йлера — Euler number
    эфи́рное число́ — ester number, ester value

    Русско-английский политехнический словарь > число

  • 11 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

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